Most people think of flour in terms of "wheat" flour. When in fact flour can be ground from a variety of nuts and seeds. Some types of flours available are: barley, buckwheat, chickpea, corn, oats, potato, rice, rye, soy, wheat, and vegetables.
When used in baking flour contributes body and structure, texture and flavour to baked goods. When used in baking it binds the ingredients together and supports the batter. It can also be used to thicken sauces, creams and pie fillings. Recipes calling for dusting cake pans or counters with flour help prevent batters and bread dough from sticking to surfaces. Flour can also be used to coat fruits and nuts before adding to batters, thus preventing them from sinking to the bottom of the pan when baked.
The type of flour used will ultimately affect the finished product. Flour contains protein and when it comes in contact with water and heat it produces gluten, which gives elasticity and strength to baked goods. Different types of flour contain different amounts of protein. Therefore using a different type of flour than what is called for in a recipe (without compensating for this change) will alter the outcome of the baked good. Cake flour is used to make a white cake where a delicate tender crumb is desired. Bread flour is used to make a chewy bread and plain flour makes a delicious batch of chocolate chip cookies.
The quality of the finished flour depends on the characteristics of the wheat used. For example, soft wheat contains little gluten and is very well suited to cake making, while hard wheat has higher gluten content, making it more suitable for bread making.
In present-day milling, the wheat is subjected to several processes in order to produce flour. The grains are first cleaned, finely ground, and pulverized, after which they are sifted, or bolted, to rid them of their bran (comprising the outer layers) in order to obtain a finer flour. The germ is also removed to improve the flour's keeping qualities. The germ can be sold separately or transformed into oil. The part of the grain that is converted into flour is called the endosperm.
The baking qualities of all types of flour are improved if the flour is stored for several weeks after milling; during this aging stage, a natural process of oxidation causes the flour to become whiter.
To hasten the maturing process and to control the end results, the flour industry now adds bleaching agents such as chlorine dioxide and maturing agents such as potassium bromate, depending on the type of flour.
In order to compensate for the loss of nutrients caused by the removal of the bran and germ during milling, various vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin) and minerals (iron) are added to the flour to fortify it.
The bran and germ are sold separately and are used primarily as livestock feed. Refined flour and refined flour products have better keeping qualities, since without the oily germ they turn rancid less quickly. A wide array of flours is available on the market, including whole-wheat flour, plain flour, cake flour, self-raising flour, unrefined flour, high-gluten flour, and bread flour.
It is believed that the first coarse flour, which included the germ and bran, was made some 75,000 years ago by first roasting and then pounding the edible grains between two stones. Sometime between this early period and the beginning of agriculture (10,000 years ago), humans made the first dough from cereal flour and baked it on a heated stone, thus creating the first form of bread.
In the early days, the grains were separated from the harvested ears of wheat using stones, after which they were ground by hand. Later, cows crushed the grains. The invention of the millstone and the water wheel greatly improved production, clearing the way for the development of the art of bread making.
The Romans produced several grades of flour, including one that was whiter than previous flours, although not as white as that commonly used today. However, only the rich could afford this white flour (the whiter it was, the higher its price), and white flour became a symbol of social standing and wealth.
The first windmill was built in England in the 11th century, with Belgium, Luxembourg, and Holland following suit in the 12th century. Water and wind were used as energy sources by the early inhabitants of America to grind the corn used to make corn bread.
In the meantime, major developments in the production of flour were occurring on both sides of the Atlantic. In the late 18th century, the steam engine was invented by the Scotsman James Watt and began to be used in milling operations. Around the same time, the American Oliver Evans invented a highly automated mill that permitted the continuous milling of flour.
The advent of the industrial Revolution gave rise to gigantic industrial mills. Over the course of 50 years during the 19th century, the invention of increasingly sophisticated machines led to the gradual replacement of millstones by steel rollers, which improved the grinding and pulverization operations as well as allowing for better separation of the germ and bran.
Since the mid-20th century, flourmills have been fortifying white flour to compensate for the loss of nutrients resulting from the removal of the bran and germ. The law requires the addition of specific quantities of niacin, riboflavin, thiamine, and iron. Prescribed quantities of calcium and vitamin D may also be added to flour and bread, but this is optional. The added nutrients only partially make up for those lost during extraction, since the mineral content (notably magnesium, zinc, and copper) and the fibre content is also affected by removal of the bran and germ. On the other hand, the added vitamin content (niacin, riboflavin, and thiamine) is usually higher for enriched flour than for unenriched flour, whether whole or refined.
Certain countries, including Canada, the United States, and Great Britain, routinely enrich their flour, while in other countries, such as France, this practice is forbidden.
Whole-wheat flour is an excellent source of magnesium, niacin, thiamine, potassium, zinc, phosphorus, and iron and a good source of folic acid, vitamin B6, and copper; it also contains pantothenic acid and riboflavin.
Plain flour is an excellent source of thiamine, niacin, and iron, as well as good source riboflavin; it contains folic acid, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, zinc, copper, and pantothenic acid.
Gluten flour is an excellent source of niacin; it also contains phosphorus, folic acid, and potassium.
When used in baking flour contributes body and structure, texture and flavour to baked goods. When used in baking it binds the ingredients together and supports the batter. It can also be used to thicken sauces, creams and pie fillings. Recipes calling for dusting cake pans or counters with flour help prevent batters and bread dough from sticking to surfaces. Flour can also be used to coat fruits and nuts before adding to batters, thus preventing them from sinking to the bottom of the pan when baked.
The type of flour used will ultimately affect the finished product. Flour contains protein and when it comes in contact with water and heat it produces gluten, which gives elasticity and strength to baked goods. Different types of flour contain different amounts of protein. Therefore using a different type of flour than what is called for in a recipe (without compensating for this change) will alter the outcome of the baked good. Cake flour is used to make a white cake where a delicate tender crumb is desired. Bread flour is used to make a chewy bread and plain flour makes a delicious batch of chocolate chip cookies.
The quality of the finished flour depends on the characteristics of the wheat used. For example, soft wheat contains little gluten and is very well suited to cake making, while hard wheat has higher gluten content, making it more suitable for bread making.
In present-day milling, the wheat is subjected to several processes in order to produce flour. The grains are first cleaned, finely ground, and pulverized, after which they are sifted, or bolted, to rid them of their bran (comprising the outer layers) in order to obtain a finer flour. The germ is also removed to improve the flour's keeping qualities. The germ can be sold separately or transformed into oil. The part of the grain that is converted into flour is called the endosperm.
The baking qualities of all types of flour are improved if the flour is stored for several weeks after milling; during this aging stage, a natural process of oxidation causes the flour to become whiter.
To hasten the maturing process and to control the end results, the flour industry now adds bleaching agents such as chlorine dioxide and maturing agents such as potassium bromate, depending on the type of flour.
In order to compensate for the loss of nutrients caused by the removal of the bran and germ during milling, various vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin) and minerals (iron) are added to the flour to fortify it.
The bran and germ are sold separately and are used primarily as livestock feed. Refined flour and refined flour products have better keeping qualities, since without the oily germ they turn rancid less quickly. A wide array of flours is available on the market, including whole-wheat flour, plain flour, cake flour, self-raising flour, unrefined flour, high-gluten flour, and bread flour.
History
The term flour was once spelled 'flower'. The milled flour we buy and use today was once ground using a mortar and pestle. Milling of different grains dates back to prehistoric times and through the ages automation of the milling process was perfected.It is believed that the first coarse flour, which included the germ and bran, was made some 75,000 years ago by first roasting and then pounding the edible grains between two stones. Sometime between this early period and the beginning of agriculture (10,000 years ago), humans made the first dough from cereal flour and baked it on a heated stone, thus creating the first form of bread.
In the early days, the grains were separated from the harvested ears of wheat using stones, after which they were ground by hand. Later, cows crushed the grains. The invention of the millstone and the water wheel greatly improved production, clearing the way for the development of the art of bread making.
The Romans produced several grades of flour, including one that was whiter than previous flours, although not as white as that commonly used today. However, only the rich could afford this white flour (the whiter it was, the higher its price), and white flour became a symbol of social standing and wealth.
The first windmill was built in England in the 11th century, with Belgium, Luxembourg, and Holland following suit in the 12th century. Water and wind were used as energy sources by the early inhabitants of America to grind the corn used to make corn bread.
In the meantime, major developments in the production of flour were occurring on both sides of the Atlantic. In the late 18th century, the steam engine was invented by the Scotsman James Watt and began to be used in milling operations. Around the same time, the American Oliver Evans invented a highly automated mill that permitted the continuous milling of flour.
The advent of the industrial Revolution gave rise to gigantic industrial mills. Over the course of 50 years during the 19th century, the invention of increasingly sophisticated machines led to the gradual replacement of millstones by steel rollers, which improved the grinding and pulverization operations as well as allowing for better separation of the germ and bran.
Nutritional Value
The nutritional value of flour depends on a number of factors, including the type of cereal, the degree of aging, and, especially, the degree of milling or the extraction rate of the flour. The extraction rate indicates the proportion of the germ and bran that remain after milling; an extraction rate of 100% designates whole-grain flour. The nutritional value of flour is thus directly related to its percentage of extraction; the lower the figure, the less nutritious the flour. The common rate of extraction of white flour in industrialized countries is 60 - 72%.Since the mid-20th century, flourmills have been fortifying white flour to compensate for the loss of nutrients resulting from the removal of the bran and germ. The law requires the addition of specific quantities of niacin, riboflavin, thiamine, and iron. Prescribed quantities of calcium and vitamin D may also be added to flour and bread, but this is optional. The added nutrients only partially make up for those lost during extraction, since the mineral content (notably magnesium, zinc, and copper) and the fibre content is also affected by removal of the bran and germ. On the other hand, the added vitamin content (niacin, riboflavin, and thiamine) is usually higher for enriched flour than for unenriched flour, whether whole or refined.
Certain countries, including Canada, the United States, and Great Britain, routinely enrich their flour, while in other countries, such as France, this practice is forbidden.
Whole-wheat flour is an excellent source of magnesium, niacin, thiamine, potassium, zinc, phosphorus, and iron and a good source of folic acid, vitamin B6, and copper; it also contains pantothenic acid and riboflavin.
Plain flour is an excellent source of thiamine, niacin, and iron, as well as good source riboflavin; it contains folic acid, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, zinc, copper, and pantothenic acid.
Gluten flour is an excellent source of niacin; it also contains phosphorus, folic acid, and potassium.
Buying
For maximum freshness, flour should be purchased in a store with a rapid turnover. Real whole-wheat flour is generally available in health-food stores, but it is a good idea to read the label, as not all whole-wheat flours have the same nutritional value.Storage
Whole wheat flour, whether stone-ground or not, must be stored in the refrigerator or freezer in order to preserve its vitamin E and to keep the oil in the germ from going rancid. Once it has thawed, store the flour in a paper bag, since an airtight container or a plastic bag will retain moisture, favouring the development of mould. Refined flours should be stored in cool, dry, dark conditions, away from insects and rodents.Using
Flour is widely used in bread and pastry making as well as in cooking to prepare a large variety of foods (crepes, waffles, rolls, donuts, tarts, puddings, muffins, biscuits, tempura). The thickening properties of flour are used to give consistency to numerous preparations, including cheese fondues, sauces, soups, syrups, and pastry creams. The non-culinary uses of flour include plasticine and homemade glue.
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Issue 9 - Christmas 2009
For most people, Christmas dinner is the meal of the year, and the one for which the host and hostess, family and friends reserve the highest hopes and the greatest of expectations.
First Principles
The Basics Cooking Handbook